Olsztyn Economic Journal

The Importance of Services in Shaping the Volatility and Synchronization of Regional Business Cycles: a Comparative Analysis of the Polish and Portuguese Economies

Rafał Warżała — Tue, 10 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of this article is to assess the role of services in stabilizing the volatility and the degree of synchronization of regional business cycles. The existing literature points to the relevance of services in smoothing business cycles. However, services can also play a negative role in stabilizing the economy, as the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated. Among a variety of services, tourism plays a special role; it can act as a stabilizer during a typical business cycle or become a source of strain in the event of an exogenous shock, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

The study focuses on the regions of two countries – Poland and Portugal – which differ in both the share and the structure of services in their regional GDP, which affects their resistance to changes in the economic environment. To examine this, such parameters of analysed business cycles were calculated, like: cycle length, phase length, coherence ratio, standard deviation ratio, coefficient of variation ratio, mean delay, cross-correlation ratio and average amplitude of upward and downward phases. The conducted analysis has shown that Polish and Portuguese regions exhibit varying degrees of resilience to business cycle fluctuations. Differences are also observed in the level of synchronization of regional cycles in both countries. Overall, the higher share of services in the regional GDP of Portugal translates into greater resilience to cyclical changes compared to the volatility observed in Polish regions. At the same time, Portuguese regions are more synchronized in terms of the phases of the business cycle. This may stem from the relatively higher share of services in GDP, particularly tourism services, in Portugal’s economy (11.9% of GDP) compared with Poland (2.2%).

Review of Migration Studies Conducted by the National Bank of Poland: Methodical Evolution and Research Challenges

Adam Panuciak — Tue, 10 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of this article is to present the evolution of migration research conducted by the National Bank of Poland (NBP) in the period 2007–2025 and to identify the main methodological challenges arising under conditions of external shocks. The paper reviews research approaches applied both to Polish emigrants residing abroad and to foreign nationals working in Poland. Particular attention is devoted to methodologies used in studies of immigrants from Ukraine, due to their dominant share in the structure of migration inflows. Data on Ukrainian citizens currently constitute an important component of Poland’s balance of payments estimates, including workers’ remittances and compensation of employees. The findings highlight the necessity of combining survey data with administrative registers and point to the need for further development of migration research at NBP in the context of a changing geopolitical environment.

Segmented Reporting and its Changes as a Result of the Covid-19 Pandemic in the Construction and Real Estate Industry

Joanna Dynowska, Katarzyna Krysztofiak — Thu, 21 May 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This paper analyses the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on segment reporting in the construction and real estate sector in Poland. The study includes an analysis of the financial statements of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange in 2019 and 2023. The study results indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic did not cause fundamental changes in the structure of the reported operating segments of the surveyed companies (segmentation by business line still dominates), but it reduced the scope of disclosed financial results. In some cases, a reduction in the number of reported segments was observed, which could be a response to changing market conditions. The study results highlight the flexibility of segment reporting and its ability to adapt to global crises. Although the pandemic did not lead to significant changes in accounting regulations, it forced the adaptation of management strategies to new economic realities.

The Essence of Sustainable Development and its Importance for Future Generations

Apolonia Jaskólska — Tue, 16 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Since the second half of the 20th century, the issue of sustainable development has been the subject of intense research and debate within the scientific community. Despite a precise definition, publications on sustainable development have presented divergent interpretations. This phenomenon results from the widespread adoption of sustainable development in scientific and social discourse, leading to numerous misinterpretations by its proponents and opponents. Sustainable development is composed of distinct terms, and their combined meaning is more than the sum of the meanings of the individual components. The subject of this work is sustainable development, and the goal is to analyze and assess sustainable development in the context of its importance for future generations. The main research question is: How can sustainable development impact future generations?
The article employs a literature review of both domestic and international literature and legal acts. Based on the collected material, it was concluded that sustainable development is crucial for the creation of future generations, as it allows access to natural resources and protects against environmental degradation and social and economic crises, ensuring the possibility of continued life and growth. The role of sustainable development is to strike a balance between economic, social, and environmental needs to ensure that the needs of the present generation are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The impact of salary and non-salary motivation on the work efficiency of generation Z

Weronika Barańska — Mon, 29 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The aim of the study was to analyse the significance of monetary and non-monetary forms of motivation for the engagement and work performance of the study group comprising members of Generation Z, as well as to identify the motivators considered by the respondents to be the most effective. The study was conducted using a diagnostic survey method involving a questionnaire. The results indicate that, within the study group, significant importance is attached primarily to flexible working hours and job security. Among financial motivators, discretionary bonuses and profit-sharing were highly rated, which respondents associated with a sense of appreciation and influence on the organisation’s operations. The results of the study may serve as a guide for employers in designing incentive schemes better suited to the expectations of Generation Z employees; however, due to the deliberate and non-random selection of the sample, they apply exclusively to the group of respondents surveyed.

Assessment of Information Transmission in the Process of Implementing the Deposit-Refund System as a Tool for Sustainable Development

Natalia Kubica — Wed, 15 Jul 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The main objective of the article was the assessment of the reliability, comprehensibility, and effectiveness of information provision during the implementation of the Deposit-Refund System (DRS), and its influence on usage of Reverse Vending Machines (RVMs), with special consideration of assessment of DRS functioning. The study was conducted using an online survey questionnaire distributed through social media using random sampling techniques, which allowed for nationwide coverage. 111 people participated in the study. Quantitative and qualitative analysis methods were used to analyze the results. The analysis examined the extent to which these messages support consumers in making economic and environmental decisions and how they affect the effectiveness of sustainable development goals. The considerations allowed for the identification of key information factors determining the efficient functioning of the Deposit-Refund System and its importance in shaping pro-environmental attitudes and reducing waste. The study results clearly indicated that the information provision was ineffective for the study group, and the low rating of information quality translates into low use of the DRS. Another reason respondents stated for not using RVMs was the underdeveloped infrastructure. The combination of negative aspects of the system’s operation, coupled with the need for respondents to change their daily routines and develop new habits, contributed to the low rating of the DRS functioning.

Output Multipliers in the Economies of Germany, Poland and Slovakia: A Comparative Input-Output Analysis

Lyubomyr Sozanskyy — Thu, 16 Jul 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The article presents a comparative analysis of output multipliers in the economies of Germany, Poland and Slovakia for 2022. The study is based on national input-output tables published by the OECD and covers fifty economic activities. The results reveal a clear cross-country gradient in average output multipliers: Germany records the lowest value, Poland an intermediate one and Slovakia the highest. This gradient reflects the higher material intensity of production in Poland and Slovakia and is amplified by the use of the total Leontief inverse, which includes both domestic and imported intermediate consumption. The ranking of economic activities is broadly similar across the three countries: manufacturing and energy occupy the upper part of the distribution, whereas education, public administration and real estate activities are located at the lower end. Slovakia combines the highest average multiplier with the widest dispersion, driven especially by motor vehicles, electronic products and electricity supply. The output multiplier is decomposed into a direct requirements component and a residual requirement component, the latter defined as the remaining output requirement after the first round of direct inputs; this residual component accounts for about 70–85 per cent of the total multiplier in all three economies. A central empirical finding is that selected manufacturing activities in Poland and Slovakia, especially motor vehicles, computers and electronics, electrical equipment and, in Slovakia, electricity supply, generate substantially higher multipliers than their German counterparts.