Output Multipliers in the Economies of Germany, Poland and Slovakia: A Comparative Input-Output Analysis
Lyubomyr Sozanskyy
Department of Problems of the Real Sector of the Economy of Regions, Dolishniy Institute of Regional Research of the NAS of Ukrainehttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7854-3310
Resumen
The article presents a comparative analysis of output multipliers in the economies of Germany, Poland and Slovakia for 2022. The study is based on national input-output tables published by the OECD and covers fifty economic activities. The results reveal a clear cross-country gradient in average output multipliers: Germany records the lowest value, Poland an intermediate one and Slovakia the highest. This gradient reflects the higher material intensity of production in Poland and Slovakia and is amplified by the use of the total Leontief inverse, which includes both domestic and imported intermediate consumption. The ranking of economic activities is broadly similar across the three countries: manufacturing and energy occupy the upper part of the distribution, whereas education, public administration and real estate activities are located at the lower end. Slovakia combines the highest average multiplier with the widest dispersion, driven especially by motor vehicles, electronic products and electricity supply. The output multiplier is decomposed into a direct requirements component and a residual requirement component, the latter defined as the remaining output requirement after the first round of direct inputs; this residual component accounts for about 70–85 per cent of the total multiplier in all three economies. A central empirical finding is that selected manufacturing activities in Poland and Slovakia, especially motor vehicles, computers and electronics, electrical equipment and, in Slovakia, electricity supply, generate substantially higher multipliers than their German counterparts.
Palabras clave:
output multiplier, input-output analysis, Leontief inverse matrix, decomposition of total requirements, interindustry linkagesCitas
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2025). Using input-output tables for analysis. In Australian System of National Accounts: Concepts, Sources and Methods (Edition 8, Chapter 22). Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/concepts-sources-methods/australian-system-national-accounts-concepts-sources-and-methods/edition-8/chapter-22-input-output-tables/using-i-o-tables-analysis (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Backinezos, C., Panagiotou, S., & Vourvachaki, E. (2020). Multiplier effects by sector: An input-output analysis of the Greek economy. Bank of Greece Economic Bulletin, 52, 7-28. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/a/bog/econbl/y2020i52p7-28.html (18.05.2026).
Crossref
Google Scholar
Boratyński, J., Plich, M., & Przybyliński, M. (2010). Krótkookresowe efekty zmian cen energii w polskiej gospodarce. Studia Prawno-Ekonomiczne, LXXXII, 187-207. Google Scholar
Boratyński, J., Przybyliński, M., & Świeczewska, I. (2015). Metody input-output: Wybrane kierunki rozwoju. In P. Wdowiński (Ed.), Nauczyciel akademicki wobec nowych wyzwań edukacyjnych (pp. 9-23). Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Google Scholar
Bureau of Economic Analysis. (2009). Concepts and methods of the U.S. input-output accounts. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved from https://www.bea.gov/resources/methodologies/concepts-methods-io-accounts (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Cassar, I. P. (2015). Estimates of output, income, value added and employment multipliers for the Maltese economy. Central Bank of Malta Working Paper WP/03/2015. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/mlt/wpaper/0315.html (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Chenery, H. B., & Watanabe, T. (1958). International comparisons of the structure of production. Econometrica, 26(4), 487-521. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907514.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Coskun, H. B., & Coskun, H. (2021). Direct and indirect transactions and requirements. arXiv:1911.11569. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1911.11569.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Dietzenbacher, E. (2002). Interregional multipliers: Looking backward, looking forward. Regional Studies, 36(2), 125-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400220121918.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Dietzenbacher, E. (2005). More on multipliers. Journal of Regional Science, 45(2), 421-426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4146.2005.00377.x.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Dietzenbacher, E., Lenzen, M., Los, B., Guan, D., Lahr, M. L., Sancho, F., Suh, S., & Yang, C. (2013a). Input-output analysis: The next 25 years. Economic Systems Research, 25(4), 369-389. https://doi.org/10.1080/09535314.2013.846902.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Dietzenbacher, E., Los, B., Stehrer, R., Timmer, M., & de Vries, G. (2013b). The construction of world input-output tables in the WIOD project. Economic Systems Research, 25(1), 71-98. https://doi.org/10.1080/09535314.2012.761180.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Grodzicki, M. J., & Skrzypek, J. (2020). Cost-competitiveness and structural change in value chains – Vertically-integrated analysis of the European automotive sector. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 55, 276-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2020.08.009.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Hirschman, A. O. (1958). The strategy of economic development. New Haven: Yale University Press. Google Scholar
Kurz, H. D., & Salvadori, N. (2006). Input-output analysis from a wider perspective: A comparison of the early works of Leontief and Sraffa. Economic Systems Research, 18(4), 373-390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09535310601020959.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Leontief, W. W. (1936). Quantitative input and output relations in the economic system of the United States. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 18(3), 105-125. https://doi.org/10.2307/1927837.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Leontief, W. W. (1941). The structure of American economy, 1919–1929: An empirical application of equilibrium analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar
Miller, R. E., & Blair, P. D. (2022). Input-output analysis: Foundations and extensions (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108676212.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Moll, S., Acosta, J., & Schütz, H. (2006). Environmental implications of resource use: Environmental input-output analyses for Germany. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 10(3), 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1162/jiec.2006.10.3.25.
Crossref
Google Scholar
OECD. (2025). OECD Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) tables [Data set]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved from https://oe.cd/icio (18.06.2026). Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics. (2017). Input-output analytical tables: Methods and application to UK National Accounts. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/nationalaccounts/supplyandusetables/methodologies/inputoutputanalyticaltablesqmi (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Opocher, A., & Steedman, I. (2015). Full industry equilibrium: A theory of the industrial long run. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Oosterhaven, J. (2007). The net multiplier is a new key sector indicator: Reply to De Mesnard. The Annals of Regional Science, 41(2), 273-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-006-0094-2.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Oosterhaven, J., & Stelder, D. (2002). Net multipliers avoid exaggerating impacts: With a bi-regional illustration for the Dutch transportation sector. Journal of Regional Science, 42(3), 533-543. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9787.00270
Crossref
Google Scholar
Paraskevopoulou, C., Tsaliki, P., & Tsoulfidis, L. (2016). Revisiting Leontief’s paradox. International Review of Applied Economics, 30(6), 693-713. https://doi.org/10.1080/02692171.2016.1173655.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Parikh, A. (1975). Various definitions of direct and indirect requirements in input-output analysis. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 57(3), 375-377. https://doi.org/10.2307/1923929.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Plich, M. (2002). Budowa i zastosowanie wielosektorowych modeli ekonomiczno-ekologicznych. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. Google Scholar
Rasmussen, P. N. (1956). Studies in inter-sectoral relations. Copenhagen: Einar Harck; Amsterdam: North-Holland. Google Scholar
Schäfer, D., & Stahmer, C. (1989). Input-output model for the analysis of environmental protection activities. Economic Systems Research, 1(2), 203-228.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Scottish Government. (2025). Multipliers – Supply, Use and Input-Output Tables. Scottish Government. Retrieved from https://www.gov.scot/publications/input-output-latest/ (18.06.2026). Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2026). Input-output multipliers, summary level. Table 36-10-0013-01. Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610001301 (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Świeczewska, I. (2014). The externalities of enterprises’ innovative activity – An input-output approach. Folia Oeconomica Stetinensia, 13(2), 146-157. https://doi.org/10.2478/foli-2013-0023.
Crossref
Google Scholar
ten Raa, T. (2005). The economics of input-output analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511610783.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Thomas, C. C., Huber, C., Skrabis, K. E., & Hoelzle, T. B. (2024). A framework for estimating economic impacts of ecological restoration. Environmental Management, 74, 1239-1259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02040-x.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Timmer, M. P., Dietzenbacher, E., Los, B., Stehrer, R., & de Vries, G. J. (2015). An illustrated user guide to the World Input-Output Database: The case of global automotive production. Review of International Economics, 23(3), 575-605. https://doi.org/10.1111/roie.12178.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Tomaszewicz, Ł. (1994). Metody analizy input-output. Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne. Google Scholar
United Nations. (2018). Handbook on supply and use tables and input-output tables with extensions and applications. Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 74. United Nations. Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/unsd/nationalaccount/capdev/resources/details?ResourceType=handbook&ResourceID=36 (18.05.2026). Google Scholar
Yamano, N., & Webb, C. (2018). Future development of the Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) database for global value chain (GVC) and environmental analyses. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 22(3), 487-488. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12758.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Department of Problems of the Real Sector of the Economy of Regions, Dolishniy Institute of Regional Research of the NAS of Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7854-3310
Licencia
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
An Author declares that his paper has not been published before (under the same or another title, or is a part of another publication) and does not infringe copyrights of other persons**. At the same time, the Author transfers to the Publisher the exclusive right to publish and to circulate this work in print in the form of a non-serial journal publication and in a form of an electronic publication.
The journal is available on Creative Common license CC-BY-NC-ND
