Scale for Measuring Gender Stereotypes: Construction and Preliminary Validation
Mikołaj Winiewski
University of Warsaw, Faculty of Psychologyhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-8000-3038
Małgorzata Majcher
DDB, WarsawKarolina Marcinkowska
University of Warsaw, Faculty of Psychologyhttps://orcid.org/0009-0002-9935-0563
Abstrakt
Objectives: The aim of the study was to develop and preliminarily validate a new, psychometrically reliable tool for measuring contemporary gender stereotypes. The tool, based on a two-dimensional model of social perception, was adapted to the Polish context and designed to capture the dynamic nature of stereotypes, thereby filling the gap left by outdated instruments.
Method: The process of creating the scale involved the generation of descriptors (traits) by a group of experts, followed by verification and selection of traits in an exploratory study (N = 309). Ultimately, 20 adjectives were selected for the tool. In the next two preliminary studies (N = 276 and N = 241), the structure of the tool was validated.
Results: Analyses have shown that selected traits strongly differentiate the images of men and women. The new scale has a reliable and stable structure and appears to be a credible tool for measuring gender stereotypes.
Conclusions: The tool presented in this article is a novel alternative to existing methods of measuring gender stereotypes in Poland. Preliminary validation confirms its reliability and usefulness, thus opening the way for further research into the dynamics and content of contemporary stereotypes.
Słowa kluczowe:
gender stereotypes, agency, community, femininity, masculinityBibliografia
Abele, A. E., & Wojciszke, B. (2007). Agency and communion from the perspective of self versus others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 751–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.751
Crossref
Google Scholar
Bajkowski, T. (2010). Kobiecość i męskość w percepcji młodzieży akademickiej [Femininity and masculinity in the perception of university students]. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak. Google Scholar
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036215
Crossref
Google Scholar
Bem, S. L. (1981). Bem Sex Roles Inventory professional manual. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Bem, S. L. (2000). Męskość Kobiecość. O różnicach wynikających z płci [Masculinity Femininity. On differences resulting from gender]. GWP. Google Scholar
Best, D. L., & Williams, J. E. (1998). Masculinity and femininity in the self and ideal self descriptors of university student sin fourteen countries. In G. Hofstede (Ed.), Masculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures (pp. 106–116). Sage. Google Scholar
Bhatia, N., & Bhatia, S. (2021). Changes in gender stereotypes over time: A computational analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 45(1), 106–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320977178
Crossref
Google Scholar
Bosson, J. K., Jurek, P., Vandello, J. A., Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Olech, M., Besta, T., Bender, M., Hoorens, V., Becker, M., Timur Sevincer, A., Best, D. L., Safdar, S., Włodarczyk, A., Zawisza, M., Żadkowska, M., Abuhamdeh, S., Badu Agyemang, C., Akbaş, G., Albayrak-Aydemir, N., … Žukauskienė, R. (2021). Psychometric properties and correlates of precarious manhood beliefs in 62 nations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(3), 231–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022121997997
Crossref
Google Scholar
Bosson, J. K., Wilkerson, M., Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Jurek, P., & Olech, M. (2022). Harder won and easier lost? Testing the double standard in gender rules in 62 countries. Sex Roles, 87(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01297-y
Crossref
Google Scholar
Chalmers, J. K. (2021). Perceptions of women in authority positions: The role of warmth and competence [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Kent. https://doi.org/10.22024/UNIKENT/01.02.88012 Google Scholar
Charles, M., & Bradley, K. (2009). Indulging our gendered selves? Sex segregation by field of study in 44 countries. American Journal of Sociology, 114(4), 924–976. https://doi.org/10.1086/595942
Crossref
Google Scholar
Charlesworth, T. E., & Banaji, M. R. (2021). Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes II. Long-term change and stability, regardless of group membership. American Psychologist, 76(6), 851–869. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000810
Crossref
Google Scholar
Charlesworth, T. E., Caliskan, A., & Banaji, M. R. (2022). Historical representations of social groups across 200 years of word embeddings from Google Books. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(28), article e2121798119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2121798119
Crossref
Google Scholar
Ciechanowicz, A. (Ed.). (1990). Kulturowa adaptacja testów [Cultural adaptation of tests]. Wydawnictwo Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. Google Scholar
Comrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (2013). A first course in factor analysis. Psychology press.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Connor, R. A., & Fiske, S. T. (2018). Warmth and competence: A feminist look at power and negotiation. In C. B. Travis, J. W. White, A. Rutherford, W. S. Williams, S. L. Cook, & K. F. Wyche (Eds.), APA handbook of the psychology of women: History, theory, and battlegrounds (pp. 321–342). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000059-016
Crossref
Google Scholar
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868 Google Scholar
Croft, A., Schmader, T., & Block, K. (2015). An underexamined inequality: Cultural and psychological barriers to men’s engagement with communal roles. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(4), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314564789
Crossref
Google Scholar
Deaux, K., & Kite, M. (2002). Stereotypy płci [Gender stereotypes]. In B. Wojciszke (Ed.), Kobiety i mężczyźni: odmienne spojrzenie na różnice (pp. 354–379). GWP. Google Scholar
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
Crossref
Google Scholar
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(10), 1171–1188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262001
Crossref
Google Scholar
Diekman, A. B., Goodfriend, W., & Goodwin, S. (2004). Dynamic stereotypes of power: Perceived change and stability in gender hierarchies. Sex Roles, 50(3), 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000015552.22775.44
Crossref
Google Scholar
Donnelly, K., & Twenge, J. M. (2017). Masculine and feminine traits on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, 1993–2012: A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 76, 556–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0625-y
Crossref
Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494
Crossref
Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglansky, & T. E. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (vol. 2, pp. 458–476). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49
Crossref
Google Scholar
Fakunmoju, S. B., Bammeke, F. O., Oyekanmi, F. A., Temilola, S., & George, B. (2016). Psychometric properties of beliefs about relationship violence against women and gender stereotypes scale. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 26(3), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2016.1185905
Crossref
Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
Crossref
Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
Crossref
Google Scholar
Gilmore, D. D. (1990). Men and women in southern Spain: “Domestic power” revisited. American Anthropologist, 92(4), 953–970. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1990.92.4.02a00060
Crossref
Google Scholar
Haines, E. L., Deaux, K., Lofaro, N. (2016). The times they are a-changing… or are they not? A comparison of gender stereotypes, 1983–2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316634081
Crossref
Google Scholar
Hammond, W. P., & Mattis, J. S. (2005). Being a man about it: Manhood meaning among African American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.114
Crossref
Google Scholar
Haslam, S. A., Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., McGarty, C., & Hayes, B. K. (1992). Context‐dependent variation in social stereotyping 1: The effects of intergroup relations as mediated by social change and frame of reference. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420220104
Crossref
Google Scholar
Herdt, G. (2020). Third sex, third gender: Beyond sexual dimorphism in culture and history. Princeton University Press.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Hoffman, R. M., & Borders, L. D. (2001). Twenty-five years after the Bem Sex-Role Inventory: A reassessment and new issues regarding classification variability. Measurement in Counseling and Development, 34(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2001.12069021
Crossref
Google Scholar
Holt, C. L., & Ellis, J. B. (1998). Assessing the current validity of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 39(11), 929–941. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018836923919
Crossref
Google Scholar
Judd, C. M., Ryan, C. S., & Park, B. (1991). Accuracy in the judgment of in-group and out-group variability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 366–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.366
Crossref
Google Scholar
Konrad, A. M., & Harris, C. (2002). Desirability of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory items for women and men: A comparison between African Americans and European Americans. Sex Roles, 47, 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021386727269
Crossref
Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Besta. T., Jurek, P., Olech, M., Sobiecki, J., Bosson, J., Vandello, J. A., Best, D., Zawisza, M., Safdar, S., Włodarczyk, A., & Żadkowska, M. (2024). Towards gender harmony dataset: Gender beliefs and gender stereotypes in 62 countries. Scientific Data, 11, article 392. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03235-x
Crossref
Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Bosson, J. K., Jurek, P., Besta, T., Olech, M., Vandello, J. A., Bender, M., Dandy, J., Hoorens, V., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Mankowski, E., Venäläinen, S., Abuhamdeh, S., Agyemang, C. B., Akbaş, G., Albayrak-Aydemir, N., Ammirati, S., Anderson, J., Anjum, G., … Żadkowska, M. (2023). Gendered self-views across 62 countries: A test of competing models. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 14(7), 808–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506221129687
Crossref
Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Korzeniewska, L., & Kaczorowska, M. (2016). Sharing housework can be healthy: Cultural and psychological factors influencing men’s involvement in household maintenance. Health Psychology Report, 4(3), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2016.62232
Crossref
Google Scholar
Kuczyńska, A. (1992). Inwentarz do oceny płci psychologicznej: podręcznik [Inventory for assessing psychological gender: a manual]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. Google Scholar
Laguía, A., García-Ael, C., Wach, D., & Moriano, J. A. (2019). “Think entrepreneur-think male”: A task and relationship scale to measure gender stereotypes in entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 15, 749–772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-018-0553-0
Crossref
Google Scholar
Levant, R. F., Richmond, K., Majors, R. G., Inclan, J. E., Rossello, J. M., Heesacker, M., Rowan, G. T., & Sellers, A. (2003). A multicultural investigation of masculinity ideology and alexithymia. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.4.2.91
Crossref
Google Scholar
Lipińska-Grobelny, A., & Gorczycka, K. (2011). Rekonstrukcja narzędzia do pomiaru płci psychologicznej [Reconstruction of a tool for measuring psychological gender]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 54(2), 179–192. Google Scholar
Lorenzo-Seva, U., & ten Berge, J. M. F. (2006). Tucker’s congruence coefficient as a meaningful index of factor similarity. Methodology, 2(2), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241.2.2.57
Crossref
Google Scholar
MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Preacher, K. J., & Hong, S. (2001). Sample size in factor analysis: The role of model error. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 36(4), 611–637. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3604_06
Crossref
Google Scholar
MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.1.84
Crossref
Google Scholar
Majcher, M. (2013) Próba uchwycenia wizerunków płci i ich przemian: Cechy przypisywane kobietom i mężczyznom oraz ich miejsce wśród pożądanych cech Ja [An attempt to capture gender images and their transformations: Traits attributed to women and men and their place among the desired traits of the Self] [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Wydział Psychologii UW. Google Scholar
Mandal, E. (2008). Shyness and gender: Physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural consequences and strategies of coping with shyness by women and men of different gender identity. New Educational Review, 14(1), 259–273. Google Scholar
Mandal, E. (2012). Masculinity and femininity in everyday life. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Google Scholar
Mandal, E., Gawor, A., & Buczny, J. (2012). The stereotypes of man and woman in Poland-content and factor structures. In E. Mandal (Ed.), Masculinity and femininity in everyday life (pp. 11–32). Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Google Scholar
Mills, M. J., Culbertson, S. S., Huffman, A. H., & Connell, A. R. (2012). Assessing gender biases: Development and initial validation of the gender role stereotypes scale. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 27(8), 520–540. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542411211279715
Crossref
Google Scholar
O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instrumentation, and Computers, 32, 396–402. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200807
Crossref
Google Scholar
Ojeda, L., Rosales, R., & Good, G. E. (2008). Socioeconomic status and cultural predictors of male role attitudes among Mexican American men: Son mas machos? Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(3),133–138. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.133
Crossref
Google Scholar
Peeters, G. (1992). Evaluative meanings of adjectives in vitro and in context-some theoretical implications and practical consequences of positive-negative asymmetry and behavioral-adaptive concepts of evaluation. Psychologica Belgica, 32(2), 211–231. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.833
Crossref
Google Scholar
Powell, G. N., Butterfield, D. A., & Parent, J. D. (2002). Gender and managerial stereotypes: Have the times changed? Journal of Management, 28(2), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630202800203
Crossref
Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., Mescher, K., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2013). Reactions to gender egalitarian men: Perceived feminization due to stigma-by-association. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(5), 572–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212461160
Crossref
Google Scholar
Safdar, S., & Kosakowska-Berezecka, N. (2016). Psychology of gender through the lens of culture. In S. Safdar & N. Kosakowska-Berezecka (Eds.), Psychology of gender through the lens of culture. Theories and applications (pp. 1–14). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14005-6_1
Crossref
Google Scholar
Siemieńska, R. (2005). Gender party quotas in Poland. In J. Ballington & F. Binda (Eds.), The implementation of quotas: European experiences (pp. 80–85). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Google Scholar
Smiler, A. P. (2004). Thirty years after the discovery of gender: Psychological concepts and measures of masculinity. Sex Roles, 50, 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000011069.02279.4c
Crossref
Google Scholar
Smiler, A. P., & Epstein, M. (2010). Measuring gender: Options and issues. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology, Vol. 1. Gender research in general and experimental psychology (pp. 133–157). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1_7
Crossref
Google Scholar
Spence, J. T., & Hahn, E. D. (1997). The attitudes toward women scale and attitude change in college students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00098.x
Crossref
Google Scholar
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. University of Texas Press. Google Scholar
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076857
Crossref
Google Scholar
Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old- fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199
Crossref
Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (Vol. 5). Pearson. Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M. (1997). Attitudes toward women, 1970–1995: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00099.x
Crossref
Google Scholar
Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029826
Crossref
Google Scholar
Velicer, W. F. (1976). Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations. Psychometrika, 41(3), 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02293557
Crossref
Google Scholar
Velicer, W. F., Eaton, C. A., & Fava, J. L. (2000). Construct explication through factor or component analysis: A review and evaluation of alternative procedures for determining the number of factors or components. In R. D. Goffin & E. Helmes (Eds.), Problems and solutions in human assessment: Honoring Douglas N. Jackson at seventy (pp. 41–71). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Crossref
Google Scholar
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study, Rev. Sage Publications, Inc. Google Scholar
Winiewski, M., Majcher, M., & Drewnik, W. (20-25 September 2008). Washing powder advertisement: The final curtain in gender equality [Oral presentation]. XXIX International Congress of Psychology, Berlin, Germany. Google Scholar
Wojciszke, B. (2010). Sprawczość i wspólnotowość [Agency and community]. GWP. Google Scholar
Wojciszke, B., & Szlendak, M. A. (2010). Skale do pomiaru orientacji sprawczej i wspólnotowej [Scales for measuring agency and community orientation]. Psychologia Społeczna, 1(13), 57–70. Google Scholar
DDB, Warsaw
University of Warsaw, Faculty of Psychology
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9935-0563
Licencja

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych 4.0 Międzynarodowe.