Brak współczesnej literatury bhutańskiej i powstanie literackich form nowomedialnych
Abstrakt
Autor artykułu koncentruje uwagę na współczesnej literaturze bhutańskiej, a dokładnie na nielicznych jej wytworach publikowanych w Królestwie Bhutanu, kraju, który przez wieki pozostawał w narzuconej sobie izolacji. Zauważa, że mimo iż przeszkody geograficzne w postaci nieprzejezdnych górskich przełęczy sprzyjały tworzeniu się wielu języków i przyczyniły się do braku jednego, specyficznego, jednoczącego wspólnotę etniczną języka, Dzongkha został uznany za język narodowy.Rozdrobnienie językowe, kultura ustna, wprowadzenie języka angielskiego jako środka nauczania w szkołach – wszystko to poskutkowało skromnymi zasobami współczesnej literatury bhutańskiej. Kultura tego kraju przez wieki była w przeważającej mierze ustna, toteż czytanie nadal nie jest uważane za formę przyjemnej rozrywki, lecz jest postrzegane jako żmudny proces i najczęściej kojarzy się z nużącą pracą szkolną lub urzędniczą. Wśród garstki autorów, którym udało się opublikować swoje prace, jest Kunzang Choden, pisarka, która w 2008 roku wydała pierwszą bhutańską książkę w języku angielskim, zatytułowaną The Circle of Karma. Co ciekawe, większość współczesnych autorów bhutańskich to kobiety, najmłodsza debiutantka miała 11 lat. Niektórzy spekulują, że nie ma wystarczającego nacisku instytucjonalnego napromocję czytelnictwa, jednak entuzjaści literatury elektronicznej udowadniają, że jest inaczej. Należą do nich członkowie Stowarzyszenia Blogerów Bhutańskich (The Community of Bhutanese Bloggers – CBB), niezależnej instytucji skupiającej pisarzy, którzy publikują treści w Internecie z nadzieją, że ich prace zostaną ostatecznie wydane w sposób tradycyjny. Ponadto, jako sposób na pozyskanie szerokiego odbioru, wielu z nich opiera się na mediach społecznościowych, takich jak Facebook, gdzie zamieszczane są fragmenty książek i opowiadań. Z tych powodów nowy krajobraz medialny Bhutanu
jest postrzegany jako miejsce szczególnie ważne dla młodych autorów.
Słowa kluczowe:
Bhutan, literatura, języki Bhutanu, Dzongkha, literatura Bhutanu, nowe mediaBibliografia
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Aris, Michael. 2005. The Raven Crown: The Origins of Buddhist Monarchy in Bhutan. Chicago: Serindia Publications.
Avieson, Bunty. 2015. The Dragon’s Voice: How Modern Media Found Bhutan. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.
Bhattarai, Mahesh. 2014. Integration Challenges for Bhutanese Refugees in Norway via Third Country Resettlement. Ås: Norwegian University of Life Sciences.
Bodt, Timotheus A. 2012. The New Lamp Clarifying the History, Peoples, Languages and Traditions of Eastern Bhutan and Eastern Mon. Wageningen: Monpasang Publications.
Bowen, Glenn A. 2009. Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research Journal, 2, pp. 27–40.
Cabezón, José I., and Jackson, Roger R. 1996. Editors’ Introduction. In: Cabezón, José I., and Jackson, Roger R. (eds.). Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre. New York: Snow Lion Publications, pp. 11–37.
Chakravarty, Srinivas R. 1996. Language and Literature in Bhutan. In: Ramakant, and Misra, Ramesh C. (ed.). Bhutan Society and Polity. New Delhi: Indus Publishing, pp. 62–77.
Choden, Kunzang. 2008. Literature in Bhutan. In: Rennie, Frank, and Mason, Robin (eds.). Bhutan: Ways of Knowing. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, pp. 237–240.
Choden, Kunzang. 2013. The Circle of Karma. New Delhi: Zubaan Books.
Dorji, Lham. 2008. The Wangchuck Dynasty: 100 Years of Enlightened Monarchy. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Driem, George van. 1987. A Grammar of Limbu. Berlin – New York – Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
Driem, George van. 1993. Language Policy in Bhutan. In: Aris, Michael, and Hutt, Michael (eds.). Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development. Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications, pp. 87–105.
Driem, George van. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.
Driem, George van, and Tshering, Karma. 1998. Dzongkha. 1st edition. Leiden: CNWS Publications.
Gulati, Manas N. 2003. Rediscovering Bhutan. Delhi: Manas Publications.
Hart, Chris. 1999. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination. 1st edition. Thousand Oaks – London – New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Jaiswal, Abhishek Kumar. 2015. The Circle of Karma: A Realistic Approach to Bhutanese Gender, Culture and Religion. Literary Quest, 4, pp. 126–132.
Khan, Nazneen. 2015. Articulating Women’s Experience: Kunzang Choden’s “The Circle of Karma”. Scholar Critic, 2 (1), pp. 36–45.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2008. What Makes You Not a Buddhist. Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2012. Not for Happiness: A Guide to the So-Called Preliminary Practices. Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2016. The Guru Drinks Bourbon? Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Krippendorff, Klaus. 2012. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks – London – New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Lovett, John. 2011. Social Media Metrics Secrets. 1st edition. Hoboken: Wiley and Sons.
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Ong, Walter J., and Hartley, John J. 2012. Orality and Literacy. 30th Anniversary Edition. London – New York: Routledge.
Penjore, Dorji. 2009. Oral Traditions as Alternative Literature: Voices of Dissents in BhutaneseFolktales. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 20, pp. 21–36.
Phuntsho, Karma. 2013. The History of Bhutan. Nodia: Random House India.
Plaisier, Heleen. 2007. A Grammar of Lepcha. Leiden: Brill.
Shaw, Bernard. 2013. Bhutan. Physical and Social Geography. In: Higgins, Neil (ed.). South Asia 2013. 10th edition. London – New York: Routledge, pp. 201–237.
Solverson, Howard. 1996. The Jesuit and the Dragon: The Life of Father William Mackey in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan. Outremont: Robert Davies Publications.
Thinley, Dorji. 2008. The Power of Bhutanese Folk Literature. In: Rennie, Frank, and Mason, Robin (eds.). Bhutan: Ways of Knowing. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, pp. 69–93.
Tshering, Chablop Passang. 2018. Interview with the author of this article conducted in Thimphu on August 27th (in the possession of the author).
Ueda, Akiko. 2003. Culture and Modernisation: From the Perspectives of Young People in Bhutan. Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Ura, Karma. 1995. The Hero with a Thousand Eyes: A Historical Novel. Thimphu: Karma Ura.
Ura, Karma. 1996. The Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi: A Wind Borne Feather. Thimphu: Ministry of Planning.
Ura, Karma (ed.). 2004. Gross National Happiness and Development: Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness. Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2016. Obstacles in Bhutan’s Internet Communication. Zeszyty Naukowe Ostrołęckiego Towarzystwa Naukowego [Volumes of Ostroleka Scientific Society], 30, pp. 462–476.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2017. Interplay Between Tradition and Modernity – Bhutan’s Visual Representation on Instagram. In: Kaur, Kanwaljit, and Khan, Shad A. (eds.). Development of Economies: Relations, Policies and System. Patiala: Madaan Publishing House, pp. 80–91.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2018a. Beyond the Clouds – Travel Narratives about the Kingdom of Bhutan. In: Kiklewicz, Aleksander, and Dudziak, Arkadiusz (eds.). Nomadyzm i nomadologia: rozważania i analizy [Nomadism and Nomadology: Theories and Analysis]. Olsztyn: Centrum Badań Europy Wschodniej, pp. 31–44.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2018b. Zarys edukacji medialnej dzieci i młodzieży w Bhutanie [The Shape of Media Education of Children and Youth in Bhutan]. In: Nowicka, Marzenna, and Dziekońska, Joanna (eds.). Cyfrowy tubylec w szkole – diagnozy i otwarcia. Vol. 1: Współczesny uczeń a dydaktyka 2.0 [Digital Nomad at School – Diagnosis and Openings. Vol. 1: Modern Pupil and Didactic 2.0]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, pp. 191–201.
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Kiphu. 2018. Youngest Bhutanese Author Comes Out with Another Book. [Online]. Bhutan Broadcasting Service. Accessed from: http://www.bbs.bt/news/?p=60177 [3.02.2018].
LaPrairie, Mark. 2014. A Case Study of English-Medium Education in Bhutan. [Online]. UCL Discovery. Accessed from: http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10021621/ [2.03.2018].
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Lhamo, Purpa. 2019. 30 Children’s Books by Children Released. Kuensel Online. [Online]. Accessed from: http://www.kuenselonline.com/30-childrens-books-by-children-released/ [14.06.2019].
Mountain Echoes. 2019. [Online]. Accessed from: http://www.mountainechoes.org/ [21.03.2019].
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Andvik, Erik. 2010. A Grammar of Tshangla. Leiden: Brill.
Aris, Michael. 1994. Introduction. In: Aris, Michael, and Hutt, Michael (eds.). Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development. Gartmore: Kiscadale, pp. 7–24.
Aris, Michael. 2005. The Raven Crown: The Origins of Buddhist Monarchy in Bhutan. Chicago: Serindia Publications.
Avieson, Bunty. 2015. The Dragon’s Voice: How Modern Media Found Bhutan. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.
Bhattarai, Mahesh. 2014. Integration Challenges for Bhutanese Refugees in Norway via Third Country Resettlement. Ås: Norwegian University of Life Sciences.
Bodt, Timotheus A. 2012. The New Lamp Clarifying the History, Peoples, Languages and Traditions of Eastern Bhutan and Eastern Mon. Wageningen: Monpasang Publications.
Bowen, Glenn A. 2009. Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research Journal, 2, pp. 27–40.
Cabezón, José I., and Jackson, Roger R. 1996. Editors’ Introduction. In: Cabezón, José I., and Jackson, Roger R. (eds.). Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre. New York: Snow Lion Publications, pp. 11–37.
Chakravarty, Srinivas R. 1996. Language and Literature in Bhutan. In: Ramakant, and Misra, Ramesh C. (ed.). Bhutan Society and Polity. New Delhi: Indus Publishing, pp. 62–77.
Choden, Kunzang. 2008. Literature in Bhutan. In: Rennie, Frank, and Mason, Robin (eds.). Bhutan: Ways of Knowing. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, pp. 237–240.
Choden, Kunzang. 2013. The Circle of Karma. New Delhi: Zubaan Books.
Dorji, Lham. 2008. The Wangchuck Dynasty: 100 Years of Enlightened Monarchy. Thimphu: Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Driem, George van. 1987. A Grammar of Limbu. Berlin – New York – Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
Driem, George van. 1993. Language Policy in Bhutan. In: Aris, Michael, and Hutt, Michael (eds.). Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development. Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications, pp. 87–105.
Driem, George van. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.
Driem, George van, and Tshering, Karma. 1998. Dzongkha. 1st edition. Leiden: CNWS Publications.
Gulati, Manas N. 2003. Rediscovering Bhutan. Delhi: Manas Publications.
Hart, Chris. 1999. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination. 1st edition. Thousand Oaks – London – New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Jaiswal, Abhishek Kumar. 2015. The Circle of Karma: A Realistic Approach to Bhutanese Gender, Culture and Religion. Literary Quest, 4, pp. 126–132.
Khan, Nazneen. 2015. Articulating Women’s Experience: Kunzang Choden’s “The Circle of Karma”. Scholar Critic, 2 (1), pp. 36–45.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2008. What Makes You Not a Buddhist. Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2012. Not for Happiness: A Guide to the So-Called Preliminary Practices. Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Khyentse, Dzongsar Jamyang. 2016. The Guru Drinks Bourbon? Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Krippendorff, Klaus. 2012. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks – London – New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Lovett, John. 2011. Social Media Metrics Secrets. 1st edition. Hoboken: Wiley and Sons.
Muppidi, Sundeep R. 2012. Bhutan. In: Muppidi, Sundeep R. (ed.). Asian Communication Handbook. 6th edition. Singapore: Asian Media Information and Communication Centre, pp. 172–184.
Ong, Walter J., and Hartley, John J. 2012. Orality and Literacy. 30th Anniversary Edition. London – New York: Routledge.
Penjore, Dorji. 2009. Oral Traditions as Alternative Literature: Voices of Dissents in BhutaneseFolktales. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 20, pp. 21–36.
Phuntsho, Karma. 2013. The History of Bhutan. Nodia: Random House India.
Plaisier, Heleen. 2007. A Grammar of Lepcha. Leiden: Brill.
Shaw, Bernard. 2013. Bhutan. Physical and Social Geography. In: Higgins, Neil (ed.). South Asia 2013. 10th edition. London – New York: Routledge, pp. 201–237.
Solverson, Howard. 1996. The Jesuit and the Dragon: The Life of Father William Mackey in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan. Outremont: Robert Davies Publications.
Thinley, Dorji. 2008. The Power of Bhutanese Folk Literature. In: Rennie, Frank, and Mason, Robin (eds.). Bhutan: Ways of Knowing. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, pp. 69–93.
Tshering, Chablop Passang. 2018. Interview with the author of this article conducted in Thimphu on August 27th (in the possession of the author).
Ueda, Akiko. 2003. Culture and Modernisation: From the Perspectives of Young People in Bhutan. Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Ura, Karma. 1995. The Hero with a Thousand Eyes: A Historical Novel. Thimphu: Karma Ura.
Ura, Karma. 1996. The Ballad of Pemi Tshewang Tashi: A Wind Borne Feather. Thimphu: Ministry of Planning.
Ura, Karma (ed.). 2004. Gross National Happiness and Development: Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness. Thimphu: The Centre for Bhutan Studies.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2016. Obstacles in Bhutan’s Internet Communication. Zeszyty Naukowe Ostrołęckiego Towarzystwa Naukowego [Volumes of Ostroleka Scientific Society], 30, pp. 462–476.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2017. Interplay Between Tradition and Modernity – Bhutan’s Visual Representation on Instagram. In: Kaur, Kanwaljit, and Khan, Shad A. (eds.). Development of Economies: Relations, Policies and System. Patiala: Madaan Publishing House, pp. 80–91.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2018a. Beyond the Clouds – Travel Narratives about the Kingdom of Bhutan. In: Kiklewicz, Aleksander, and Dudziak, Arkadiusz (eds.). Nomadyzm i nomadologia: rozważania i analizy [Nomadism and Nomadology: Theories and Analysis]. Olsztyn: Centrum Badań Europy Wschodniej, pp. 31–44.
Żyliński, Szymon. 2018b. Zarys edukacji medialnej dzieci i młodzieży w Bhutanie [The Shape of Media Education of Children and Youth in Bhutan]. In: Nowicka, Marzenna, and Dziekońska, Joanna (eds.). Cyfrowy tubylec w szkole – diagnozy i otwarcia. Vol. 1: Współczesny uczeń a dydaktyka 2.0 [Digital Nomad at School – Diagnosis and Openings. Vol. 1: Modern Pupil and Didactic 2.0]. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, pp. 191–201.
Internet sources
Baruvuri, Sowmya. 2015. Interview with Kunzang Choden: First Bhutanese Woman to Publish a Novel in English [blog]. [Online]. Women’s Web: For Women Who Do. Accessed from: http://www.womensweb.in/2015/08/interview-kunzang-choden-first-bhutanese-woman-publish-novelenglish/ [20.02.2019].
Bhutanese Writers. 2018. Bhutanese Writers. [Online]. Wikipedia. Accessed from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Bhutanese_writers [20.02.2018].
Books by Bhutanese. 2020. [Online]. Booknese. Accessed from: https://booknese.com [10.09.2020].
BTO. 2019. About BTO. [Online]. Bhutan Toilet Organization. Accessed from: https://www.bhutantoilet.org/about/about-bto/ [2.06.2019].
CBB. 2019. The Community of Bhutanese Bloggers. [Online]. Fanpage of CBB on Facebook. Accessed from: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1605595783044478/ [2.06.2019].
DDC. 2018. About Dzongkha Development Commission. [Online]. Dzongkha Development Commission. Accessed from: http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/en/aboutus/about-dzongkha-development-commisiso [3.01.2018].
Delma, Tshering. 2017. Youngest Author Writing Her Next Book. [Online]. The Bhutanese. Accessed from: http://thebhutanese.bt/youngest-author-writing-her-next-book/ [11.01.2019].
Dorji, Kinley. 2015. The Story of Bhutanese Culture. The Druk Journal, 2. [Online]. Drukjournal.bt. Accessed from: http://drukjournal.bt/the-story-of-bhutanese-culture/ [2.02.2018].
Dorji, Thinley, and Maxwell, Tom. 2013. The Role of English in Culture Preservation in Bhutan. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 28. [Online]. Journal of Bhutan Studies. Accessed from: http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/publicationFiles/JBS/JBS_Vol28/JBS28.pdf [2.03.2018].
Dzongkha – Dzonglish. 2010. “Dzonglish” – Is It Making the National Language Corrupt? [Online]. Bhutan Broadcasting Service. Accessed from: http://www.bbs.bt/news/?p=1136 [3.01.2017].
Euden, Pema. 2018. So… I’m Not the Youngest Author of Bhutan Anymore [blog]. [Online]. Random Rants with Pema. Accessed from: https://eudenemma.wixsite.com/randomrantswithpema/single-post/2017/09/04/So-Im-not-the-Youngest-Author-of-Bhutan-anymore [14.01.2018].
Gyeltshen, Tshewang. 2017. Bhutanese Literature Now and Before: Critical Review with Analytical Differences. [Online]. Academia. Accessed from: https://www.academia.edu/15601548/Bhutanese_literature_Now_and_Before_Critical_Review_with_Analytical_differences [27.10.2017].
Kiphu. 2018. Youngest Bhutanese Author Comes Out with Another Book. [Online]. Bhutan Broadcasting Service. Accessed from: http://www.bbs.bt/news/?p=60177 [3.02.2018].
LaPrairie, Mark. 2014. A Case Study of English-Medium Education in Bhutan. [Online]. UCL Discovery. Accessed from: http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10021621/ [2.03.2018].
Level of English in Bhutan. 2014. Bhutanese Students Can’t Speak English as Expected: Study Shows. [Online]. Bhutan Broadcasting Service. Accessed from: http://www.bbs.bt/news/?p=40659 [1.06.2014].
Lhamo, Purpa. 2019. 30 Children’s Books by Children Released. Kuensel Online. [Online]. Accessed from: http://www.kuenselonline.com/30-childrens-books-by-children-released/ [14.06.2019].
Mountain Echoes. 2019. [Online]. Accessed from: http://www.mountainechoes.org/ [21.03.2019].
Nopkin. 2019. Nopkin.com – Make Someone’s Day! [blog]. [Online]. Nopkin.com. Accessed from: http://www.nopkin.com/ [27.06.2019].
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